Feminist Thought in Maharashtra: Gender Equality and Women's Identity in the 20th Century

Feminist Thought in Maharashtra: Gender Equality and Women's Identity

 in the 20th Century

 

Introduction:

The 20th century is regarded as a decisive period of social, cultural, and political transformation in Maharashtra. During this century, the spread of education, social reform movements, the freedom struggle, and post-independence constitutional values brought about radical changes in the condition of women. Against this backdrop emerged feminist thought, centered on gender equality and women's identity. Maharashtra has been a major center in the history of Indian feminism. The movement that began in the latter half of the 19th century was linked to the freedom struggle and, in the post-independence era, took on a more independent, aggressive, and multidimensional form. During this period, gender equality gained strength through education, political participation, legal rights, and social reforms, giving new dimensions to the women's movement. This movement primarily challenged patriarchal society, the caste system, and religious constraints. Feminist thought in Maharashtra was largely built on the foundations of 19th-century social reform movements. The contributions of reformist women such as Savitribai Phule, Tarabai Shinde, and Pandita Ramabai were significant, and these ideas developed in a more organized and ideological form in the 20th century. In this century, these thoughts advanced through education, widow remarriage, anti-casteism, participation in the freedom struggle, and the rise of Dalit feminism. The feminist movement not only sparked revolution but also challenged society's traditional frameworks, presenting a new definition of gender equality and women's identity.

At the beginning of this century, efforts under British rule for women's education and rights gave feminism a new shape. For instance, the SNDT Women's University established in 1916 by Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve became a symbol of women's education, providing higher education opportunities to thousands of women. The establishment of this university accelerated the women's education movement in Maharashtra and marked a major step toward gender equality. Additionally, women's participation in the freedom struggle was a crucial part of feminism's development. Early in the century, Maharashtra's feminist movements clearly reflected the legacy of the Bhakti movement and the influence of social reforms. Women saints like Janabai and Muktabai from the Bhakti era had challenged religious and social constraints, the echoes of which appeared in 20th-century movements. Women's participation in the freedom struggle intensified not only political awareness but also demands for social equality. For example, in the 1920s, organizations like the All-India Women's Conference raised voices for women's rights, with significant participation from Maharashtra's women.

In the post-independence period, the Hindu Code Bill in the 1950s granted women equality in property and inheritance rights, shocking patriarchal society. Due to these movements, women in Maharashtra emerged not only from domestic roles but also became active in political, economic, and cultural spheres. Women played active roles in Mahatma Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement and Civil Disobedience, strengthening their political identity. Women from Maharashtra like Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay and Aruna Asaf Ali led these struggles, earning women's identity recognition at the national level. In the post-independence era, constitutional values of equality provided legal support to feminism, though obstacles in patriarchal society persisted. In the 1970s, the Mathura rape case led to legal reforms, giving birth to new movements against gender violence. This case introduced the concept of 'custodial rape' in Indian law and added new dimensions to the struggle for women's rights. In the latter half of the century, during the 1970s-80s, organizations like Stree Mukti Sanghatana and FAOW fought against violence, dowry, and property rights. All these changes were significant toward gender equality and women's identity, inspiring global movements like today's MeToo. Overall, this century proved to be a transitional period for feminism in Maharashtra, marked by the conflict between tradition and modernity. The main purpose of this research paper is to shed light on this transitional period.

Gender Equality:

Gender equality means providing women and men with equal rights, opportunities, responsibilities, and decision-making capacity. It includes equal treatment in economic, social, political, and cultural spheres without discrimination based on gender. This encompasses equal access for women and men to education, employment, health, and property; equal rights under law in voting, property ownership, marriage, and divorce. Features of gender equality include no discrimination in salary, promotion, or responsibilities based on gender. It particularly involves empowering women and girls so they can contribute fully to society. Gender equality is not just a women's issue but essential for the progress of the entire society. It reduces poverty, strengthens the economy, and promotes peace. One of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals is to achieve gender equality and empower all women. In India, the Constitution (Articles 14, 15, 16) guarantees gender equality, yet disparities persist in education, employment, and politics. This requires education, laws, and awareness. Gender equality is a process that must be implemented at all levels of society, creating a just and prosperous society.

Women's Identity:

It refers to the awareness of a woman's selfhood, personality, or identity. It includes existence as a woman, pride, dignity, and independent identity. The word "asmita" comes from Sanskrit, originally meaning "I-ness" or ego in yogic philosophy. Asmita means the awareness of an individual or group's independent existence and importance. Women's identity means awareness of gender-based identity as a woman. It includes femininity, awareness of women's rights, freedom, and equality. It is linked to feminism, where women rebel against their oppressed condition and construct their own identity.

In Marathi literature, women's identity is particularly highlighted through feminist writing. Feminist poetry and novels depict women's body, mind, family life, sexuality, and societal injustice. Writers like Mallika Amar Sheikh, Neerja, and Prabha Ganorkar have described women's rebellious and self-reliant identity. In feminist discourse, thinkers like Simone de Beauvoir emphasized "awakening women's identity," which resonates in Marathi as well. In short, women's identity is the awareness of the fundamental question "Who am I?" as a woman and pride in that identity, which is suppressed in patriarchal society and awakened through feminism.

Foundation in the Latter Half of the 19th Century and the Role of Social Reformers:

As the 20th century began, a strong foundation for feminist thought in Maharashtra had already been laid, primarily through the efforts of 19th-century social reformers. During this period, the influence of the Brahmo Samaj, Satyashodhak movement, and nationalist agitations is evident. The vision of viewing women not merely in a home-centered role but as independent individuals with equal rights solidified during this time. Mahatma Jyotiba Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj, which fought for women's rights and against casteism. This movement demanded education and social justice for women, providing a foundation for 20th-century feminism.

Savitribai Phule was the founder of India's first girls' school. She prioritized education and identity for Dalit-Bahujan women. In her view, education was essential for women's intellectual development, bringing liberation from men's slavery and self-reliance. She wrote poetry attacking caste and gender discrimination, emphasizing love, compassion, equality, and anti-violence. Her ideas continued to inspire education movements and Dalit feminism in this century. Savitribai established homes for widows and orphans, promoting women's social security and freedom. Her poems sharply criticize women's exploitation; for example, in the poem "Manavta," she states that education will liberate women. These ideas influenced 20th-century movements, especially in Dalit women's education. Savitribai faced Brahminical opposition by starting schools for girls in Pune, became a teacher herself, and educated Dalit girls, sparking a social revolution. Her collection "Kavyaphule" contains songs of women's liberation, where she says, "Through education comes knowledge, through knowledge comes liberation." These thoughts continued to inspire other institutions in the 20th century.

Tarabai Shinde wrote "Stri-Purush Tulana," India's first explicit feminist book. It challenged gender discrimination by exposing men's flaws. This book became a foundation for discussions on women's identity in the 20th century. In "Stri-Purush Tulana," Tarabai Shinde challenged religious texts and patriarchal societal rules, focusing particularly on widows' suffering. The book was controversial under British rule but added new dimensions to feminist discourse. In this century, these ideas were reflected in literature and movements, such as Dalit feminism. Tarabai wrote in the book, "Efforts are made to cover men's faults by blaming women." This statement exposes the flaws of patriarchal society.

Pandita Ramabai established Sharada Sadan and Mukti Mission for widows. She criticized women's enslavement in Hindu society and, by converting to Christianity, presented a new definition of women's freedom. Her book "The High Caste Hindu Woman" gained international fame. Pandita Ramabai started Mukti Mission, providing education and vocational training to widows. In books like "The Peoples of the United States," she compared American women's education with Indian conditions, inspiring global feminism. In the 1880s, Calcutta University awarded her the title "Pandita," recognizing women's intellectual capacity. Through Sharada Sadan, she educated widows and brought social change.

Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first woman doctor, who obtained medical education in America, encouraging women's professional independence. Anandibai Joshi earned her MD degree in 1886 from the Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania, opening the medical field for Indian women. Her journey strengthened the idea of women's education and professional freedom.

Ramabai Ranade provided education and vocational training to women through Sevasadan. Ramabai Ranade established Sevasadan in 1909, training widows and poor women, promoting economic independence. Kashibai Kanitkar was the first woman writer in Marathi. She raised her voice against women's injustice through novels, biographies, and stories. These reformers focused on issues like child marriage, sati, women's education, and widow remarriage, forming the basis for the 20th century's struggle for gender equality. This foundation made feminism more organized in the 20th century.

Characteristics of Feminism in Maharashtra:

1.      Maharashtrian feminism linked the caste system with feminism from the beginning. Savitribai Phule and Tarabai Shinde fought not only against upper-caste women's patriarchy but also against Brahminical structures. This perspective became prominent in Indian feminism only after the 1980s-90s. In Maharashtra, women's participation in Dalit-Bahujan movements was significant, highlighting the intersection of caste and gender. For example, the Phule couple emphasized Dalit women's education, presenting the conflict of class and caste.

2.      Savitribai Phule started the first girls' school in 1848. In Maharashtra, education was considered the primary right for women's liberation, while in other states this issue emerged later. SNDT University strengthened this characteristic, educating thousands of women by 1920. This education was not just intellectual but a means of economic independence.

3.      Autobiographies by Shanta Bai Kamble, Baby Kamble, and Maltibai Phule prominently mention Dalit women's experiences. These entered the mainstream of Indian feminism much later (after 1990). In Baby Kamble's "Jina Amucha," rural Dalit women's exploitation is described, showing the intersection of caste and gender.

4.      The term "Stree-Mukti" (women's liberation) was used very early in Marathi. Periodicals like "Nava Bharat" (1920) and "Mahila" (1930), along with plays, built a strong cultural foundation for feminism in Marathi. Novels like Malti Bedekar's "Kalyenche Nishwas" presented women's experiences, strengthening literary feminism. Feminism in Maharashtra is more intersectional than in other states, considering caste, class, and gender. This characteristic began with the Bhakti movement and matured in the 20th century.

Development of Gender Equality and Women's Identity:

The development of feminist thought in 20th-century Maharashtra occurred in three major phases: pre-independence period (1900-1947), early post-independence period (1947-1970), and the second wave after 1970. In each phase, women fought for social reform, nationalism, economic justice, and against gender violence. Women's movements in Maharashtra prioritized education, political participation, and caste-gender intersectional issues, giving Indian feminism a distinct character.

In the 1900-1947 period, feminist thought linked to nationalism and social reform emerged. Early in the 20th century, feminist thought in Maharashtra was mainly connected to social reform and nationalist movements. This period emphasized women's education, social rights, and political participation. The All-India Women's Conference (AIWC), established in Pune in 1927, was important for women's education and social reforms. Women from Maharashtra played active roles in this organization, discussing issues like opposition to child marriage, widow education, and voting rights. Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad presided over AIWC's first session, and Maharashtra women proposed resolutions for education reforms.

Women's participation in the freedom struggle was a hallmark of this period. Under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership, Maharashtra women participated in large numbers in the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22), Civil Disobedience (1930), and Quit India Movement (1942). Especially in the Salt Satyagraha (1930), women made and sold salt at Mumbai's Chowpatty and Wadala. Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay led women's marches in Mumbai, becoming the first woman arrested for selling salt. Maharashtra women boycotted foreign cloth and liquor shops, forcing Gandhi to encourage women's participation. Key women leaders from Maharashtra include Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay. She was active in Mumbai, a founding member of AIWC, and on the front lines in satyagraha. She inspired women for political participation. Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted the tricolor in Mumbai during the 1942 Quit India Movement, earning her the title "Grand Old Lady of Independence." Other women include Hansa Mehta, Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, and Durgabai Deshmukh, who drew inspiration from Maharashtra and worked nationally. Arya Mahila Samaj (inspired by Pandita Ramabai's legacy) and other local organizations worked for widows and poor women. Women's participation in this period was not merely symbolic; they endured imprisonment, led marches, and linked nationalist ideas to gender equality. This participation strengthened women's political identity.

Post-Independence Period (1947-1970): Demand for Autonomy and Economic-Social Justice After independence, feminist thought became more autonomous. The Constitution guaranteed gender equality, but patriarchal obstacles persisted in reality. During this period, women fought for economic justice, land rights, and against inflation. Participation of tribal and rural women increased in Maharashtra. The Shahada movement in Dhule (1972) was a key movement of this period. Bhil tribal women fought for land rights and against exploitation. The Shramik Sanghatana started this movement, with women leading. Landlords had seized tribal land; women organized marches, sit-ins, and anti-rape protests. This movement highlighted double exploitation of caste and gender, with women inspiring men. Leaders like Godavari Parulekar organized tribal women.

In the anti-inflation movement (1972-75), Mrinal Gore led the front. Drought and war caused inflation; women in Mumbai held "Latne Morche" (rolling pin marches), teaching lessons to traders. Mrinal Gore and Ahilya Rangnekar formed the United Front Against Price Rise. Thousands of women took to the streets against black marketing and hoarding. This became the largest women's mobilization post-independence, demanding economic equality. During this period, women linked labour and tribal issues to gender equality. Organizations like SEWA organized women in the informal sector.

After 1970: Beginning of the Second Wave and Multidimensional Movements 

After 1970, the second wave of feminism began, more aggressive, independent, and multidimensional. Issues like violence, dowry, property rights, and gender violence took centre stage. Many organizations emerged in Maharashtra. Stree Mukti Sanghatana was established in Mumbai. Started by Jyoti Mhapsekar and Sharda Sathe. They presented the play "Mulgi Zali Ho" to discuss women's issues. The organization worked against domestic violence, dowry, and gender discrimination. It emphasized cultural programs, counselling centers, and environmental issues. FAOW (Forum Against Oppression of Women, Mumbai) and MASUM (Mahila Sarvangeen Utkarsh Mandal, Pune) ran campaigns against violence and dowry in the 1980s. After the Mathura rape case (1972), legal reforms occurred, with active roles by Maharashtra women. Discussion of feminism arose in the context of Shiv Sena's women's front. The women's front gave women political activism, but it mixed traditional roles and communalism. Women worked on violence and local issues, gaining social status, but mainstream feminism criticized it. Movements after 1980: Environment, labor issues, and Dalit-tribal women's questions. Dalit feminism emerged, highlighting caste-gender intersection. In this phase, women broke silence, wrote autobiographies, and brought legal changes. The foundation for modern movements like MeToo was laid here. These major phases gave Maharashtra's feminism an intersectional form of caste-class-gender. Women not only demanded rights but challenged society's patriarchal and caste systems. This legacy continues to inspire today's struggles for gender equality and identity.

Challenges Regarding Gender Equality and Women's Identity:

Despite significant progress in gender equality and women's identity through 20th-century feminist movements in Maharashtra, many serious challenges remained. These challenges arose mainly from patriarchal structures, caste system, religious constraints, economic inequality, and social customs. Education, legal rights, and political participation increased in this century, but full change in women's condition did not occur in reality. Especially Dalit and Bahujan women faced double exploitation of caste and gender. The challenges are detailed below.

1.       Maharashtra's society remained patriarchal, binding women mainly to domestic and maternal roles. Even after the Hindu Code Bill in the post-independence period granted equality in property and inheritance, male dominance persisted in family decisions, marriage, and sexuality. Regarding women's identity, women were identified as "ideal wife" or "mother," suppressing their independent identity.

2.      The characteristic of Maharashtra's feminism is the intersection of caste and gender, but it also became a challenge. Though education was considered the main issue for women's liberation, opportunities remained limited for rural and Dalit women.

3.      Wage discrimination, employment inequality, and inadequate implementation of property rights persisted. This kept women's identity theoretical rather than practical.

4.      Religious texts and customs kept women subordinate. Despite the Bhakti movement's legacy, religious fundamentalism and communalism increased in the 20th century.

5.      Efforts against widow remarriage and child marriage occurred, but customs persisted in rural areas.

6.      Gender violence remained the biggest challenge. Justice was difficult in cases of domestic violence, dowry deaths, and rape.

Conclusion:

Feminist thought in 20th-century Maharashtra was a blend of social reform, freedom struggle, and independent movements. Built on the foundations laid by thinkers like Phule, Shinde, and Ramabai, this movement continues to inspire gender equality and women's empowerment today. This movement was not just a demand for rights but aimed to establish women as independent individuals. Its importance persists today, with the intersectional perspective of caste, class, and gender being crucial. The efforts of the 20th century provide a base for future movements, where the fight for gender equality and identity continues. This century gave Maharashtra's feminism recognition at the global level, with contributions from education, law, and literature and this legacy will guide future movements.

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